42% of India’s population falls below the poverty line (BPL) of $1.25 per day, having reduced from 60% in 1980
Over the past decades the Government has initiated multiple poverty alleviation programmes that have helped substantially reduce poverty, prevent famines and increase literacy in the country
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)
Launched 2006
The NREGA aims at two objectives: employment and rural development
Provides a legal guarantee for employment of 100 days every year to adult members of rural households, who are willing to do unskilled manual labour for public works
Provides statutory minimum wage of Rs 60 per day
Applies to all rural households, whether or not they are BPL
The NREGA stipulates that works must be targeted towards a specific set of rural development activates like water conservation, afforestation, flood control, etc
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
Launched in 1978
Aims to provide self employment in various activities in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy. Supported activities include sericulture, animal husbandry, weaving, handicrafts, services, businesses etc
Merged with the Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana in 1999
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana
Introduced 1993
Aims to provide self employment for educated unemployed youth by setting up microenterprises
Under the scheme, every selected educated unemployed youth 18-35 years old and having family income below Rs 24,000 is given loan up to Rs 1 lakh for opening his own enterprises
Swarnajayanti Gram Swarjgar Yojana (SGSY)
Launched 1991
The SGSY is a self employment programme that focuses on poverty alleviation
Promotes self help groups, development of micro enterprises by providing bank credit and government subsidy
Includes 50% benefit to SC/ST, 40% for women and 3% for disabled
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)
Launched 2001
Provides wage employment in rural areas, thereby ensuring food security, creation of durable community, social and economic infrastructure
Implementation through Panchayati Raj system
Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
Launched 1997
Aims to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed poor through encouraging the setting up self employment ventures or provision of wage employment
Contains two special schemes
The Urban Self Employment Programme
Urban Wage Employment Programme
SJSRY is a merged programme consisting of erstwhile schemes like Urban Basic Services, Nehru Rozgar Yojana, and PM’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme
Provides reservations for women (30%), disabled (3%) and SC/ST on the strength of local population
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)
Launched 1996
The IAY is a scheme that provides for construction of houses and money to be given to poor
Soaps are anionic surfactants used for washing and cleaning. Surfactants are wetting agents that lower the surface tension of a liquid
Soaps consist of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
They are obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline solution
The earliest recorded evidence for use of soap is from Babylon c. 2800 BC
Mode of action
Soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end
The hydrophilic end dissolves in water, while the hydrophobic end dissolves dirt and oil molecules
As a result, although water and oil don’t mix, soaps allow oil to dissolve in water, allowing them to be rinsed away
Thus, soaps allow water to remove normally insoluble matter by emulsification
Detergents
Detergents are surfactants other than soap
Detergents are commonly used as industrial soaps, due to their heavy duty grease removal capabilities
Soaps differs from detergents in that in the case of former, excess of fat is used to consume the alkali and the glycerine is not removed, leaving a naturally moisturising soap
In general detergents are substances that have cleaning properties. By definition, even water is a detergent
The new rocket launched today by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) comes with three satellites and costs Rs. 230 crores. One of the satellites - the ResourceSat-2 will help map forests glaciers, and monitor crop yields.
But is this what India really needs? Experts point out that India already has the largest constellation of 10 civilian remote sensing satellites in the world. And the government's auditor has reported that almost 90% of the photographs and images delivered by ISRO's satellites are not used. Many of these images are needed both by the government and private sector especially for development of infra-structure like roads, airports and town planning.
The report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) highlights that despite the abundance of data available via satellite images, a wasteland mapping project undertaken by ISRO had been delayed by 14 years. The project was to help in rural development.
The auditor has also found that the place where data from the satellites is processed - the National Remote Sensing Center in Hyderabad - is showing worrying levels of inefficiency as images are not being processed fast enough.
At a press conference today, ISRO chairman K Radhakrishnan admitted that `the findings of the CAG were one hundred percent correct.'
The criticism directed at ISRO is boosted by a comparison to two similar American remote-sending satellites - Geoeye and Digital Globe - both of which use as much 90% of all the images they collect.
PSLV-C16, is the eighteenth flight of ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV. In this flight, the standard version of PSLV with six solid strap-on motors is used.
PSLV-C16 will place three satellites with a total payload mass of 1404 kg - RESOURCESAT-2 weighing 1206 kg, the Indo-Russian YOUTHSAT weighing 92 kg and Singapore's X-SAT weighing 106 kg – into an 822 km polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO). PSLV-C16 will be launched from the First Launch Pad (FLP) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
The major changes made in PSLV since its first launch include changes in strap-on motors ignition sequence, increase in the propellant loading of the first stage and strap-on solid propellant motors as well as the second and fourth stage liquid propellant motors, improvement in the performance of the third stage motor by optimising motor case and enhanced propellant loading and employing a carbon composite payload adapter.
PSLV has also become a more versatile vehicle for launching multiple satellites in polar SSOs as well as Low Earth Orbits (LEO) and Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). With sixteen successful launches, PSLV has emerged as the workhorse launch vehicle of ISRO and is offered for launching satellites for international customers also. During 1994-2010 period, PSLV has launched a total of 44 satellites, of which 25 satellites are from abroad and 19 are Indian satellites.
With over 3.3 million km of roadways, India has the third largest road network in the world (behind USA and China)
India has about 65,500 km of National Highways, 130,000 km of State Highways and 4.67 million km of District Roads and 2.65 million km of rural and urban roads
India has the highest density of highways in the world (0.66 km of highway per sq km of territory)
India’s road networks carry nearly 65% of freight traffic and 85% of passenger traffic in the country
Traffic on roads is growing at about 7-10% per annum while number of vehicles is growing about 12% per annum
Grand Trunk Road
The Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) is one of the oldest and longest roads in the Indian subcontinent
It runs from Sonargaon (near Dhaka) in Bangladesh to Peshawar in Pakistan, covering a distance of 2500 km
In India, it runs through Kolkata, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Delhi, Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Amritsar
The stretch between Kolkata and Kanpur is designated NH-2, the stretch between Kanpur and Delhi NH-91, and between Delhi and Wagah NH-1
The Grand Trunk road was commissioned by Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century to connect Agra with Sasaram (Bihar). It was later expanded by the British to run from Bengal to Peshawar
The Grand Trunk Road is now part of the Golden Quadrilateral project
TYPES OF ROAD NETWORKS
National Highways
The National Highways are the primary long distance roadways in India
There is about 65,500 km of National Highways in India, of which about 200 km have been designated as Expressways
The National Highways constitute only 2% of total roadways in India, but carry about 40% of the total traffic
The longest National Highway in NH-7, which runs from Varanasi to Kanyakumari (about 2369 km). The shortest National Highway is NH-47A, which runs from Ernakulam to Kochi Port (about 6 km)
The Leh-Manali Highway is the highest highway in the world (average elevation of about 5000 m). It connects Leh in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) with Manali in Himachal Pradesh. The Highway passes through some of the highest mountain passes in the world including Rohtang La, Baralacha La, Lachulung La and Tagland La
National Expressways
National Expressways make up about 200 km of the National Highways network
The major difference between Highways and Expressways in India, is that the latter have controlled access (i.e. entry and exit only at certain specific locations)
Expressway
Connected cities
Length
Notes
Western Expressway
Mumbai suburbs
25 km
Eastern Expressway
Mumbai-Thane
23 km
Sion Panvel Expressway
Mumbai suburbs
25 km
12 lanes expressway (6 in each direction)
National Expressway 1
Ahmadabad-Vadodara
90 km
First Expressway in India Part of Golden Quadrilateral
Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway
Delhi-Gurgaon
28 km
Part of Golden Quadrilateral
Mumbai-Pune Expressway
Mumbai-Pune
93 km
Part of Golden Quadrilateral India’s first 6 lane, concrete, high-speed, tolled, access controlled Expressway
State Highways
State Highways refers to the highways laid and maintained by the state governments
These State Highways usually connect important cities, towns, district headquarters within the State, and with important places in other states
They also link important cities of a state with the National Highways and State Highways of neighbouring states
There is about 130,000 km of State Highways in India
State Highways are designated SH
District Roads
District Roads are important roads within a district connecting areas of production with their markets
They also connect the towns with each other and with State and National Highways
District Roads also connect Taluka headquarters with District headquarters in various regions of a state
There is about 4.7 million km of District Roads in India
District Roads are administered by the state governments
Rural and urban roads
Rural and urban roads (especially rural) form the largest chunk of road networks in India: about 2.65 million km
Rural roads are essential for transporting agricultural produce and products of small scale industries to their markets in villages, towns and cities
In order to facilitate the development of rural roads, the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) has been established
Rural and urban roads are administered by the concerned local governments (Panchayats, Municipal Corporations etc)
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
National Highways Development Project (NHDP)
The NHDP is a project to upgrade, rehabilitate and widen major highways in India to a higher standard
The project was commissioned in 1998
The NHDP builds on existing National Highways and improves them to better standards
The NHDP is being implemented in a phased manner consisting of seven phases.
The NHDP consists of two important components
Golden Quadrilateral: This is Phase I of the NHDP. The Golden Quadrilateral connects New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai. Total length is 5846 km. It was completed (to a large extent) in 2003
North-South East-West Corridor: This is Phase II of the NHDP. The NSEW Corridor connects Srinagar with Kanyakumari and Silchar (Assam) with Porbandar (Gujarat). Total length is 7300 km. It is currently under construction. The North-South and East-West corridors meet at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
The NHDP is implemented by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
Special Accelerated Road Development Programme in the North East Region
Programme approved in 2009
Implemented by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
The programme aims to provide connectivity to all state capitals and district headquarters in the North East region
The programme includes upgrading of other stretches of National Highways and state highways considered critical for economic development
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Launched 2000
Implemented by Ministry of Rural Development
The PMGSY is a nationwide plan to provide good all-weather road connectivity to unconnected villages
The goal of the PMGSY is to provide connectivity to all villages
With a population of at least 1000 by 2003
With a population of at least 500 by 2007
In hill states, tribal and desert area villages with population of at least 500 by 2003
In hill states, tribal and desert area villages with population of at least 250 by 2007
In order to monitor the implementation of the programme, the Centre for Development of Advance Computing (CDAC) developed the Online Management, Monitoring and Accounting Scheme (OMMAS), which has grown to become one of the largest computer database in India
Central Road Fund
Established in 1998
The primary objective of the Fund is to provide financing to meet the challenges of accelerated funding requirement of road development projects
To support the Fund, an additional duty of Rs 0.50 per litre was levied on petrol and high speed diesel
Of this revenue, 50% goes for development of rural roads, and the other 50% for development of National Highways and other roads
GOVERNMENTAL BODIES
National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
Established 1988, headquarters New Delhi
The NHAI is responsible for the development, maintenance and management of National Highways in India
The NHAI is currently implementing the NHDP
Functions under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
National Institute for Training of Highway Engineers (NITHE)
Established 1983, located Noida
The NITHE is the apex training institute for training highways and bridge engineers in the country
The objectives of the NITHE include
Impart training to engineers
Assist other organisations in developing their own training institutions
Promote cooperation and knowledge exchange in the field of highway engineering between engineers in India and abroad
The NITHE also conducts training programmes for engineers from other Central and state government departments, PSUs and private enterprises
Functions under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
Established 1948, location New Delhi
Functions under the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of Science of Technology
The primary objective of the Institute is to provide research, technical and consultancy services in the areas of highways engineering, bridge engineering, geotechnical engineering, and traffic and transport planning
Forests cover approximately 9.4% of the Earth’s surface i.e. about 30% of total land area, although they used to cover as much as 50% of land area
Forests are differentiated from woodland by the extent of canopy coverage: in forests, the foliage of trees meet and interlock while in woodlands there is enough gap between trees allowing sunlight to penetrate to the ground
Forests are one of the most important aspects of the Earth’s biosphere
The functions of forests include
Habitat for organisms
Hydrologic flow modulation
Soil conservation
Human factors affecting forest sustenance include logging, urban sprawl, agriculture, industries, human-induced forest fires etc. Natural factors affecting forests include forest fires, insects, diseases, weather etc
Only about 20% of the world’s original forests remain in undisturbed forest. Of this, 75% are in Russia, Canada and Brazil
Distribution of forests
In general, forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth (at altitudes up to the tree line), except where natural disturbance is too high or human activity has altered the environment
The areas between latitudes 10 N and 10 S are mostly covered in tropical rainforests, and between 53N and 67N have boreal forests (taiga)
Forests can contain many species in a small area (like rainforests) or relatively few species in a large area (like taiga and montane coniferous forests)
Forests have higher biomass per unit area compared to other vegetation types. Much of the forest biomass occurs below the ground in root systems and partially decomposed detritus
The major types of forest systems are
Rainforests (both tropical and temperate)
Taiga
Temperate broadleaf forests
Tropical dry forests
Temperate rainforest in Washington, USA (northwestern USA)
Old growth forests
Old growth forests (also called primary forests, ancient forests) are forests that contain trees which have attained great age
Old growth forests typically contain large and old live trees, large dead trees and large logs
Death of individual trees creates gaps in the canopy layer allowing light to penetrate and create favourable conditions for undergrowth
Old growth forests are often home to rare and threatened species, making them ecologically significant. For instance, the Northern Spotted Owl is reliant on old growth forest
The importance of old growth forests include
They contain rich communities of plants and animals due to the long period of forest stability
They serve as a reservoir for species that cannot thrive or regenerate in younger forests
They store large amounts of carbon both above and below the ground (either as humus or in wet soils as peat)
Forests that are regenerated after disruptions must wait several centuries to millennia before they can reach the stable equilibrium that signifies old growth forests
Due to increased human activity, old growth forests have been substantially destroyed over the last century. Of the old growth forests that still remain, 35% are in Latin America (Brazil), 28% in North America (mainly Canada) and 19% in northern Asia (Siberia)
Second growth forests
Second growth forests (secondary forests) are forests that have re-grown after a major disturbance such as fire, insect infestation, logging, windthrow etc
Second growth forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and have more undergrowth
Second growth forests usually have less biodiversity than old growth forests, since the former have had lesser time to develop and reach stable equilibrium
Secondary forests are common in areas under shifting agriculture, areas with forest fires, and forests that are recovering from harvesting and agriculture
Secondary forests can several generations of trees (centuries) to resemble the original old growth forests. However, in some areas, secondary forests do not succeed due to soil nutrient loss and erosion (especially in tropical rainforests)
Most of the forests of eastern North America and of Europe are secondary forests
Distribution of tropical rainforests in the world
Overview
Rainforests are forests characterised by high rainfall, with minimum annual rainfall as high as 1700-2000 mm
Rainforests are responsible for 28% of the world’s oxygen turnover. However, rainforests do not contribute much to the net oxygen additions to the atmosphere. Instead, they are vital in storing carbon in bio sequestration
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the area near the equator where winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres meet, plays a significant role in creating the rainforests
Despite the growth of vegetation, soil quality in a rainforest is poor. Most trees have roots near the surface due to lack of nutrients below the ground
More than half the world’s species of plants and animals are found in rainforests
Tropical Rainforests
Tropical rainforests are rainforests in the tropics, near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
Tropical rainforests are found in South America (Brazil), Central America (Yucatan Peninsula), Sub-Saharan African (Congo), Northeast India, Southeast Asia (Indo-Malaya, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)
Tropical rainforests are called ‘world’s largest pharmacy’, since over 25% of modern medicines originate from these plants
Tropical rainforests are home to half of all the plant and animal species on earth
Tropical rainforests are characterised by heavy rainfall, resulting in poor soil due to leaching of nutrients
Temperatures range 15 C to 50 C. Rainfall ranges from 1250 mm to 6600 mm annually
Temperate Rainforests
Temperate rainforests are rainforests that occur in the temperate zone and receive high rainfall
Temperature range 4 to 12 C. Rainfall minimum is around 1400 mm annually
Temperate rainforests are found in close proximity to oceans, and usually occur in coastal mountains. This is because temperate rainforests depend on the proximity to oceans to moderate seasons, creating milder winters and cooler summers. Coastal mountains increase rainfall on the ocean facing slopes
Wildfires are uncommon in temperate forests due to the high moisture content in the forest
Mosses are abundant in temperate rainforests
Temperate rainforests sustain the highest levels of biomass of any terrestrial ecosystem
Temperate rainforests are notable for trees of massive proportions, including coast redwood, coast douglas fir, sikta spruce etc
Temperate rainforests are found in western North America, south-western South America, Norway, northern Spain, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand
Distribution of temperate rainforests in the world
Rainforests are typically divided into four layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that environment
Emergent layer
The highest layer, formed by a small number of very tall trees that grow above the general canopy
They reach heights of 45-55 m, occasionally even 70-80 m
Need to be able to withstand high temperatures and strong winds
Eagles, butterflies, bats and some monkeys inhabit this layer
Canopy layer
The canopy layer consists of the largest number of tall trees, which provides a more or less continuous cover of foliage by adjacent treetops
Usually reach heights of around 30-45 m
The canopy layer is the densest area of biodiversity in a rainforest. It is estimated that the canopy layer is home to about 50% of all plant species and 25% of all insect species
Understory
The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor
Leaves are much larger at this level
Only about 5% of sunlight incident on the rainforest reaches the understory layer
This layer is home to a number of birds, snakes, lizards, and predators like jaguar, boa constrictors etc
Forest floor
The forest floor is the bottom most layer
The forest floor receives only about 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region
Due to low sunlight penetration, forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation. This makes it possible to walk through a rainforest
Effect on global climate
Rainforests emit and absorb massive quantities of carbon dioxide. Undisturbed rainforests usually have no net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
However, rainforests play a vital role in other climatic effects such as cloud formation and water vapour recycling
Deforestation caused by human activities and drought can cause rainforests to release massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
TROPICAL DRY FORESTS
Overview
Tropical dry forests are located in the tropical and subtropical latitudes
These forests occur in areas that are warm and receive plentiful rainfall (several hundred centimetres) but experience long dry seasons which last several months. These seasonal droughts have great impact on the forest
Deciduous trees dominate in these forests
Tropical dry forests are less biologically diverse than rainforests
However, they are home to a wide variety of wildlife including monkeys, deer, parrots, large cats etc. Mammalian biomass tends to be higher in dry forests than in rainforests.
Characteristics
During the drought season a leafless season occurs. The shedding of leaves allows trees like teak and ebony to conserve water during these dry periods
When the trees enter the dry leafless season, the canopy layer opens up allowing sunlight to reach the ground, thereby enabling growth of thick undergrowth
However, certain areas of tropical dry forests can have evergreen trees. This happens especially when the forests are on moisture sites or have access to groundwater
Three tropical dry forest regions have evergreen forests:
The forests of central India are tropical dry forests
Dry forests are extremely sensitive to forest fires, overgrazing and deforestation. Restoration of dry forests is possible, but challenging
Distribution
Dry forests tend to exist north and south of the equatorial rainforest belt, and south and north of the subtropical deserts
They usually occur in two bands: one between 10 and 20 N latitudes and the other between 10 and 20 S latitudes
The most diverse dry forests of the world are found in southern Mexico and Bolivia
The dry forests of central India and Indochina are notable for their diverse and large vertebrate fauna
Other tropical dry forests are found in New Caledonia, Madagascar, south eastern Africa and the Pacific coast of South America
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF AND MIXED FORESTS
Overview
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome (ecological system)
These forests typically have four layers
Canopy layer: contains mature trees 100-200 ft high
Understory: shade tolerant layer of trees that grow to about 30-50 feet shorter than the canopy
Shrub layer: low growing woody plants
Herbaceous layer: this is the ground cover, most diverse layer
Characteristic broadleaf trees these forests include oaks, birches, beeches and maples. Mixed trees are basically coniferous trees such as pines, firs and spruces
Areas of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include northeast USA, northern India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, southwest China
Distribution
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct warm and cool seasons, with moderate annual average temperature (5-15 C)
They usually occur in moderately warm and rainy climates, sometimes with a distinct dry season
Annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm and sometimes over 1500 mm
The Taiga, the world's largest terrestrial biome, is found throughout the high nothern latitudes
Overview
Taiga is a biome characterised by coniferous forests
The Taiga is the world’s largest terrestrial biome
The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation (250mm – 750 mm), mostly in the form of fog, snow and summer rain. However, since evaporation is also low, there is enough moisture to enable dense vegetation growth
Taiga soils tend to be young and nutrient-poor. The soil tends to be acidic and hence the forest floor only has lichens and mosses growing
Characteristics
The taiga has harsh continental climate and large range of temperatures: -54 C to 27 C
Except for the tundra and permanent ice caps, the taiga is the coldest biome on earth
There are two main types of taiga:
Closed forest: closely spaced trees with mossy ground cover
Lichen woodland: trees that are farther apart and have lichen ground cover. More common in colder areas
In the northern taiga areas, forest cover is not only sparse but also stunted
The forests of taiga are mainly coniferous consisting of larch, spruce, fir and pine
Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of thin soils.
Since the sun is low on the horizon most of the time, it is difficult to photosynthesise. Pine and spruce do not lose their leaves in winter and can photosynthesise using their older leaves
The adaptation of evergreen needles (on pines) limits water lost to transpiration and the dark green colour increases sunlight absorption
Distribution
The taiga covers most of Canada, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the Scottish Highlands and Russia. It is also found in parts of northern USA, northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and northern Japan
Large areas of Siberia’s taiga have been destroyed in recent years
In Canada, less than 8% is protected development and more than 50% has been allocated for logging
Taiga in Alaska, USA
The taiga is home to a large number herbivorous mammals and smaller rodents
Some of the animals, like bears, eat in summer and hibernate in winter. Others have evolved layers of fur to insulate them from the cold
Due to the climate, carnivorous diets are inefficient for obtaining energy.
A significant number of birds like Siberian thrush, white throated sparrow, black throated green warbler migrate to the taiga to take advantage of long summer days
Muslim conquests in India started in the 12th century. However, periodical raids into India started as early as the 7th century
The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate
Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic, Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples
Impact of Muslim conquests
The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the establishment of a common legal system
Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia
Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities from China
Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread to the rest of the world
Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu,which uses Persian words in the Arabic script
Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate
The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan
During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)
These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid Persian empire in the mid seventh century
Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan
Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India
In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim, who defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.
This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories
The main objective of the expedition was the Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’ due to its wealth
Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority
Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE). Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries
Multan became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam
The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control
Mahmud of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty
He ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE
The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan
At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India
Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan
Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and parts of Kashmir. Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE
Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain
Muhammad of Ghor
Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE
His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan
Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE, thereby establishing the Ghorid dynasty
He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king following the latter’s death in 1202
Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom
Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain (Haryana) in 1191 CE
The next year, Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE
Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. Ghori also captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the last Hindu ruler of Delhi
Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206 CE. One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate
In India, the Jan Lokpal Bill (Citizen's ombudsman Bill) is a draft anti-corruptionbill that would create a Jan Lokpal, an independent body like the Election Commission, which would have the power to prosecute politicians and bureaucrats without government permission.
The bill was drafted by Shanti Bhushan, former IPS Kiran Bedi, Justice N. Santosh Hegde, advocate Prashant Bhushan, former chief election commissioner J. M. Lyngdoh in consultation with the leaders of the India Against Corruption movement and the civil society. The bill proposes institution of the office of Lokpal (Ombudsman) at center and Lok Ayukta at state level. The Jan Lokpal Bill is designed to create an effective anti-corruption and grievance redressal systems and to assure that an effective deterrent is created against corruption and to provide effective protection to whistleblowers.
The Lokpal Bill drafted by the government has failed to pass the Rajya Sabha for 42 years. The first Lokpal Bill was passed in the 4th Lok Sabha in 1969 but could not get through in Rajya Sabha. Subsequently, Lokpal bills were introduced in 1971, 1977, 1985, 1989, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2005 and in 2008. Yet none of these bills were ever passed.
Background
The movement for Jan Lokpal Bill started due to the resentment because of the serious differences between the draft Lokpal Bill 2010 prepared by the government and the Jan Lokpal Bill prepared by the members of this movement, which has received significant public support. Supporters of the bill consider existing laws to be too weak and insufficiently enforced to stop corruption.
Key features of proposed bill
A central government anti-corruption institution called "Lokpal", supported by state institutions called "Lokayukta" will be set up
Like the Supreme Court and the Election Commission, they will be completely independent of the governments. No minister or bureaucrat will be able to influence their investigations.
Members will be appointed by judges, private citizens, and constitutional authorities through a transparent and participatory process.
Investigations in each case will have to be completed in one year. Trials should be completed in the following year, meaning the total process will take place within two years.
Any loss that a corrupt person caused to the government will be recovered at the time of conviction.
Help to common citizen: If any work of any citizen is not done in prescribed time in any government office, Lokpal will impose financial penalty on guilty officers, which will be given as compensation to the complainant.
Any complaint against any officer of Lokpal shall be investigated and, if found to be substantive, will result in the the officer being dismissed within two months.
The existing anti-corruption agencies(CVC, departmental vigilance and the anti-corruption branch of CBI) will be merged into Lokpal. Lokpal will have complete powers and authority to independently investigate and prosecute any officer, judge or politician.
The agency will also provide protection to whistleblowers who alert it of potential corruption cases.
Protests
A group of Delhi residents dressed in white shirts and t-shirts took a four-hour drive around the city on March 13, 2011 to support a campaign against corruption and the Jan Lokpal Bill.
On April 5, 2011, anti-corruption activist Anna Hazare began a fast unto death till Jan Lokpal Bill enacted. Around 6,000 Mumbai residents also started a one-day fast to support the demand for implementation of the Jan Lokpal Bill. Protesters have chosen yellow as the color of protests. They were seen wearing yellow dresses, T shirts and having yellow banners. Protesters in different cities are co-ordinating to observe Yellow Sunday.
Hazare also announced plans to start a Jail Bharo Andolan protest on 13th April, 2011 if the Jan Lokpal bill is not passed by the government. Hazare stated that his group has received six crore (60 million) SMSes in its support. He is further supported by a large number of Internet activists.
The protests are not political in nature. Political leaders were discouraged by Hazare supporters from joining in his protests, as Hazare indicated his belief that these parties were using the campaign for their own political advantage.
Political support
The response of prominent political parties and leaders is:
Bhartya Janta Party have extended support to the bill. The principal opposition demanded that the Centre convene an all-party meeting to discuss the Jan Lokpal Bill.
RLD chief Ajit Singh today expressed support to the anti-corruption campaign.
The government has stated that it has not received the proposed bill copy. After the ‘fast unto death’ was announced by Anna Hazare, he was invited for talks by the PM, but the PM said the government has no time till May 13. To dissuade Hazare from going on an indefinite fast, the Prime Minister's Office have directed the ministries of personnel and law to examine how the views of civil society activists can be included in the Lokpal bill.
On the 5th April 2011, the National Advisory Council rejected the Lokpal bill draft of the government. Union Human Resource Development Minister Kapil Sibal met social activists Swami Agnivesh and Arvind Kejriwal on 7 April to find ways to bridge differences on the bill. Hazare's fast was supported by CPI(M). Politbeure of cpim issued a statement for demanding effective lokpal bill.
Differences between Draft Lokpal Bill 2010 and Jan Lokpal Bill
Key Differences
Draft Lokpal Bill 2010
Jan Lokpal Bill
Lokpal will have no power to initiate suo moto action or receive complaints of corruption from the general public. It can only probe complaints forwarded by LS Speaker or RS Chairman.
Lokpal will have powers to initiate suo moto action or receive complaints of corruption from the general public.
Lokpal will only be an Advisory Body. Its part is only limited to forwarding its report to the "Competent Authority"
Lokpal will be much more than an Advisory Body. It should be granted powers to initiate Prosecution against anyone found guilty.
Lokpal will not have any police powers. It can not register FIRs or proceed with criminal investigations.
Lokpal will have police powers. To say that it will be able to register FIRs.
CBI and Lokpal will have no connection with each other.
Lokpal and anti corruption wing of CBI will be one Independent body.
Punishment for corruption will be minimum 6 months and maximum up-to 7 years.
The punishment should be minimum 5 years and maximum up-to life imprisonment.
Lokpal will not be a monopoly for particular area
Nothing has been provided in law to recover ill gotten wealth. A corrupt person can come out of jail and enjoy that money.
Loss caused to the government due to corruption will be recovered from all accused.
Criticisms for the Jan Lokpal Bill
Some people have expressed the opinion that the Jan Lokpal Bill is 'naive' in its approach towards combating corruption. According to Pratap Bhanu Mehta, President, Center for Policy Research, Delhi, the bill "is premised on an institutional imagination that is at best naïve; at worst subversive of representative democracy".
Anna Hazare's Fast To Bring the Jan Lokpal Bill
As Indians from across the world start their march against corruption from today, one of the major demands of this march (Dandi March 2) is to enact Jan Lokpal Bill. I thought it right to write a post describing what Jan Lokpal Bill is and why is it needed. To give a brief history, Lokpal Bill was first introduced in parliament in 1968. It has been brought in parliament on eight times on later occasions, but has never been passed by the parliament. It is a bill that is supposed to give powers to citizens to sue the people responsible for corruption. A similar kind of independent agency disappeared corruption from Hong Kong a few decades ago.
The government is again thinking of introducing a Lokpal Bill in parliament this year, and the National Advisory Council (NAC) chaired by Sonia Gandhi is considering it. But as it stands today, the bill is riddled with loopholes, defeating its very purpose. Social activists have remarked it to be a toothless bill and not at all acceptable. An alternative bill, the Jan Lokpal Bill has been drafted by Justice Santosh Hegde (Lokayukta of Karnataka), Prashant Bhushan and Arvind Kejriwal after series of consultations with public and social activists. This bill is supported by Kiran Bedi, Shanti Bhushan, Anna Hazare, etc.
The Dandi March 2 event and the subsequent ‘fast unto death’ by Anna Hazare from April 5 are in support of this ‘Jan Lokpal Bill’. The activists have already sent the bill to the PM and all CMs but there has been no response. After the ‘fast unto death’ was announced by Anna Hazare, he was invited for talks by the PM, but the response was bad as the PM said the government has no time for corruption till May 13. This after the numerous corruption scams like the Commonwealth Games, Adarsh Society, 2G scam being uncovered in the past months.
The Zero Rupee Note - Stop Corruption
The present system to fight corruption in India can be described in some points as below -
The Anti Corruption Branch and CBI comes under the government. Despite having evidence, it is very difficult to convict people as they have to take permission from the same bosses, against whom the case has to be investigated.
No corrupt officer is dismissed from the job because Central Vigilance Commission, which is supposed to dismiss corrupt officers, is only an advisory body. Whenever it advises government to dismiss any senior corrupt officer, its advice is never implemented.
No action is taken against corrupt judges because permission is required from the Chief Justice of India to even register an FIR against corrupt judges
The functioning of CBI and vigilance departments is secret and hence it promotes corruption.
Weak and corrupt people are appointed as heads of these institutions by the government.
Citizens face harassment in government offices. Sometimes they are forced to pay bribes. One can only complaint to senior officers. No action is taken on complaints because senior officers also get their cut.
Nothing in law to recover ill gotten wealth. A corrupt person can come out of jail and enjoy that money.
Small punishment for corruption- Punishment for corruption is minimum 6 months and maximum 7 years.
As you can see, in the present system, there is no deterrent for any public official to engage in an act of corruption. Some of the salient features of the Jan Lokpal Bill are -
An institution called LOKPAL in the centre and LOKAYUKTA in each state will be set up. These institutions will completely independent of the governments, just like the Supreme Court and the Election Commission. No minister can influence their investigations.
Investigation in any case will have to be completed in one year. Trial should be completed in next one year so that the corrupt officer, or politician goes to jail in two years max.
The loss that a corrupt person caused to the government will be recovered at the time of conviction.
If any work of any citizen is not done in prescribed time in any government office, Lokpal will impose financial penalty on guilty officers, which will be given as compensation to the complainant. So, you could approach Lokpal if your ration card or passport or voter card is not being made or if police is not registering your case or any other work is not being done in prescribed time. Lokpal will have to get it done in a month’s time.
Election of Lokpal officials – What if government appoint corrupt and weak people as Lokpal members? That won’t be possible because its members will be selected by judges, citizens and constitutional authorities and not by politicians, through a completely transparent and participatory process.
What if some officer in Lokpal becomes corrupt? The entire functioning of Lokpal/ Lokayukta will be completely transparent. Any complaint against any officer of Lokpal shall be investigated and the officer dismissed within two months.
What will happen to existing anti-corruption agencies? CVC, departmental vigilance and anti-corruption branch of CBI will be merged into Lokpal. Lokpal will have complete powers and machinery to independently investigate and prosecute any officer, judge or politician.
The punishment would be minimum 5 years and maximum of life imprisonment.
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