India-Pakistan "Cricket Diplomacy" - Timelines

The meeting of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Pakistan's Yousuf Raza Gilani at the cricket World Cup semi-final is the latest attempt at cricket diplomacy in South Asia.
   
Cricket has frequently been the victim of poor relations between the neighbours, with tours blocked for years because of bad-blood, but it has also been used to build trust and confidence when ties are improving.
   
Here are key dates in the troubled history of India and Pakistan as well as the attempts to mend fences through the sub-continent's shared passion for cricket:
   
   
- 1947: End of British rule and partition of the sub-continent into mainly Hindu-majority India and the Muslim-majority state of Pakistan. Partition triggers widespread religious bloodshed in which hundreds of thousands die.
   

   
- 1947-49: The two new states go to war over the Muslim-majority state of Kashmir, which is also partitioned, along a de facto border that neither accepts to this day.
   
  
 - 1965: A new war over Kashmir ends inconclusively.
   
   
- 1971: The two countries go to war over East Pakistan, which secedes to form the new nation of Bangladesh.
   
   
- 1974: India explodes first nuclear device in an underground test.
   
   
- 1987: Pakistan's Zia-ul-Hq launches "cricket diplomacy" by watching a cricket Test match between India and Pakistan with then India PM Rajiv Gandhi, defusing tension as both countries mass troops on their borders.
   

   
- 1989: India tours Pakistan for a full Test series.
   
   
-- Muslim separatist groups begin anti-India campaign in Kashmir. New Delhi accuses Pakistan of arming and training the militants. Relations sour severely and cricket suffers.
   
  
- 1992: Destruction of Babri mosque in Ayodhya strains relations further.
   

   
- 1993: Serial blasts in Mumbai kill around 250. India blames Pakistan for harbouring the key suspect.
   
   
- 1997: India returns to Pakistan for first time in eight years to play a limited series of one-day internationals.
   
   
- 1998: Both countries carry out tit-for-tat nuclear weapons tests, raising tension across the world.
   
   
- 1999: Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee holds summit with his Pakistani counterpart Nawaz Sharif in Lahore, leading to a thaw in relations.
   
   
-- Later in the year, the Pakistani team tours India for first time since 1987 despite protests from Hindu extremists in India. The victorious Pakistanis receive a standing ovation during the first game.
   
   
-- The goodwill vanishes as Indian troops fight a brief but bloody conflict with Pakistan-backed forces in the mountains of Kargil in Indian-held Kashmir.
   
   
- 2001: Vajpayee holds a summit with Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf in Agra, which ends in failure because of differences over Kashmir.
   

   
-- India blames Pakistan-based militants for an attack on the parliament in New Delhi that leaves 15 people dead.
   

- 2003: Both countries agree a ceasefire on the Line of Control in Kashmir, improving relations.
   
   
- 2004: They launch a formal peace process, known as the Composite Dialogue, to address a broad range of bilateral issues.
   
   
-- India tours Pakistan for a full Test series for the first time since 1989 as part of a diplomatic initiative called the "Friendship Series." Many Indian fans report being welcomed like long-lost brothers.
   
   
- 2005: Pakistan tours India. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh invites then Pakistan president Pervez Musharraf to New Delhi to watch a match. They say afterwards that the peace process was now "irreversible."
   
   
- 2006: India tours Pakistan.
   
   
-- Serial blasts in Mumbai suburban trains kill 174. India blames Pakistan-based Islamist militants.
   
   
- 2008: Islamist gunmen attack Mumbai, killing 166 people. India blames Pakistan-based militants for the assault and suspends the peace dialogue.
   

   
- 2011: After a number of high-level contacts between the countries, they agree to restart their peace talks to resolve all outstanding issues, including the vexed subject of Kashmir.
   
   
-- Singh invites Pakistan President Asif Ali Zardari and Prime Minister Gilani to watch the World Cup semi-final between the two rivals in Mohali.
   
   
Sources: AFP archives; the book "Batting For Peace" by Arne Naess-Holm (2008).

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General Studies - RAILWAYS IN INDIA

RAILWAYS IN INDIA

Overview

• The railway network in India is the fourth largest in the world
  
• India’s railway network transports over 6 billion passengers and 350 million tonnes of freight annually
• Railways in India traverse the length and breadth of the country, with about 7000 stations and total route length of over 63,000 km. About 28% of the route length has been electrified

History of railways in India

Extent of the railway network in India in 1909

• The first railway line in the Indian subcontinent was established in Madras in 1836. The first line was established near Chintadripet Bridge on an experimental basis. In 1837, a 3.5 mile line was commissioned between Red Hills and the stone quarries at St Thomas Mount
• The regular first train in India was operationalised in 1851 for localised hauling of canal construction material in Roorkee
  
• Two railways companies – the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) and the East Indian Railway (EIR) were created in 1853 to construct and operate experimental railway lines near Bombay and Calcutta respectively
• The first passenger train service in India was inaugurated between Bombay (Bori Bundar) and Thane in 1853
  
• In 1923, both the GIPR and the EIR were nationalised
• Upon Independence in 1947, forty two separate railway systems in India were amalgamated into a single unit christened the Indian Railways. The Indian Railways thus became one of the largest railway networks in the world
• Railway zones were established in 1951

The Indian Railways

• The Indian Railways is the state-owned railway company of India, which owns and operates most of India’s rail transport
• The Indian Railways was formed in 1947 by the amalgamation of 42 disparate railway networks
• The Indian Railways functions under the Ministry of Railways
• The Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest commercial employers with over 1.4 million employees
  
• The Indian Railways operates both long distance and suburban rail services

Railway zones

• The Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones, which are further subdivided into divisions
• The Kolkata Metro, although owned and operated by the Indian Railways, is part of any zone
• Each of the 16 zones is headed by a General Manager. Divisions are headed by Divisional Railway Managers
• The oldest railway zone is the Southern Railways, established in Apr 1951
  

Technical details of railways in India

Comparison of the different railway gauges used in India. The Standard Gauge, which is used internationally, is not used in India

• The Indian Railways uses four gauges
  • Indian Broad Gauge: 1676 mm (5ft 6in). This is the most widely used gauge in India. It is broader than the international Standard Gauge (1435 mm i.e. 4ft 8.5in)
    
  • Meter Gauge: 1000 mm (3ft 3.5in)
  • Narrow Gauge: 762 mm (2ft 6in)
  • Narrow Gauge: 610 mm (2ft)
• Project Unigauge was launched in 1980 to convert all portions of track to broad gauge
• Narrow gauge is presently used on Kalka-Simla Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
  
• Almost all electrified sections of track use 25,000 V AC traction through overhead catenaries
  
• Exceptions to this include
  • Mumbai section, which uses 1500 V DC traction
  • Kolkata Metro which uses 750 V DC, delivered via third rail

Suburban railways

• Suburban railways are currently operational in Mumbai, Kolkata, New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, Pune and Lucknow-Kanpur
• The New Delhi Metro, Kolkata Metro and Chennai MRTS have their own dedicated track
• Suburban trains handling passenger traffic usually use Electric Multiple Units (EMU)
• The oldest underground railway network in India is the Kolkata Metro, commissioned in 1984. The second underground network, the Delhi Metro, started operations in 2002

Special railways in India

• There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on the Indian Railways
  
  • Chatrapathi Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus), Mumbai
  • Mountain railways of India
• The Mountain Railways of India consists of three separate railway systems i.e. the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Kalka-Simla Railway
• Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
  
  • It is a 2ft narrow gauge railway
  • Operates between Siliguri and Darjeeling in West Bengal
  • Built 1889-1891. Added to UNESCO World Heritage List 1999
• Nilgiri Mountain Railway

  

  The rack and pinion system on the Nilgiri Mountain Railway
  • Uses a 3ft 3 3/8 in metre gauge
  • Connects Mettupalayam with Ooty in Tamil Nadu
  • Only railway in India to use rack-and-pinion system
    
  • Has the highest railway gradient in India (average of 4%, at places as high as 8%)
    
  • Added to UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005
    
• Kalka-Simla Railway
  
  • It is a 2ft 6in narrow gauge railway
  • Operates between Kalka in Haryana and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh
  • Added to UNESCO World Heritage List 2008
• Konkan Railway
  • The Konkan Railway runs along the Konkan coast of India, between Mangalore in Karnataka and Mumbai in Maharashtra. It was opened in 1998
  • The Konkan Railway introduced India’s first Roll on Roll off (RORO) freight service in 1999, which allows trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers
• Kashmir Railway
  
  • The Kashmir Railway, also known as Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link (JUSBRL) is intended to connect to Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of the country by means of railways
  • Currently under construction, the project is expected to complete in 2017. The first phase of the project, between Jammu and Udhampur was completed in 2005
  • When completed the Kashmir Railway will connect Jammu with Baramulla, a distance of 345 km
  • The entire project has been divided in four legs or phases
    • Leg 0: Jammu-Udhampur (53 km). Completed Apr 2005
    • Leg 1: Udhampur-Katra (25 km). Expected completion 2012
    • Leg 2: Katra-Qazigund (148 km). Expected completion 2017
    • Leg 3: Qazigund-Baramulla (119 km). Completed Oct 2009
  • The route crosses major earthquake zones, and is subject to extreme temperatures and inhospitable terrain
  • The Kashmir Railway has the highest railway bridge in India: 77m over the Tawi river in the Jammu-Udhampur section.
  • When the Kashmir Railway is completed, the Chenab Bridge will be the highest railway structure in the world (359 m above river bed), making it taller than the Eiffel Tower

Notable facts about the Indian Railways

Map of the Kashmir Railway. Leg 0 (black line) and Leg 3 (red line) are currently operational. Leg 1 (blue line) and Leg 2 (green line) are under construction

• The
  Palace on Wheels is India’s first luxury train. It was launched in 1962. It travels from New Delhi to Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Sawai Madhopur, Chittaurgarh, Udaipur, Bharatpur and Agra
• The Fairy Queen, built in 1855, is the world’s oldest steam engine still in active use. It currently operates a special tourist service from New Delhi to Alwar in Rajasthan, to the Sariska Tiger Reserve
• The Lifeline Express, commissioned in 1991, is India’s mobile hospital train run by the Impact India Foundation, in collaboration with the Indian Railways and the Ministry of Health
• The Himsagar Express, between Kanyakumari and Jammu Tawi, has the longest run in terms of distance and time in the Indian Railways. It covers a distance of 3745 km about 75 hours
• The Bhopal Shatabdi Express is the fastest train in India, having a maximum operating speed of 150 kmph
• The Kharagpur Railways Station has the world’s longest railway platform (1072 m)

International rail links

• India has rail links with Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh
• India-Pakistan rail links
  
  • Samjhauta Express: Amritsar (Punjab, India) – Lahore (Punjab, Pakistan)
    
  • Thar Express:
    Munabao (Rajasthan, India) – Khokhrapar (Sindh, Pakistan)
• India-Bangladesh rail links
  
  • There are two freight links between India and Bangladesh. However there is no passenger rail link
    
  • Mahishasan (West Bengal, India) – Shahbazpur (Bangladesh)
  • Radhikapur (West Bengal, India) – Birol (Bangladesh)
• India-Nepal rail links
  
  • Raxaul (Bihar, India) – Sirsiya (Parsa, Nepal)
  • Jaynagar (Bihar, India) – Khajuri (Dhanusa, Nepal)

Private railways in India

• Although the Indian Railways enjoys a near monopoly on rail transport in India, a few private railways do exist
• Private railways are also owned and operated by companies for their own purposes such as harbours, ports, steel mills, mines etc
  
• Private railways in India are principally for freight and not for passenger transport
  
• The Bombay Port Trust, Madras Port Trust and Calcutta Port Trust all run their own broad gauge lines
• The Tatas operate furnicular railways (inclined railways) at Bhira and Bhivpuri Road in Maharashtra
• The Kutch Railway Company, a joint venture between the Gujarat government and private companies is in the process of building a Gandhidham-Palanpur railway line

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General Studies - RECENT NOTEWORTHY DEVELOPMENTS

RECENT NOTEWORTHY DEVELOPMENTS

1. Critically Endangered Sumatran Rhino expecting calf
   
   
   
   
   
   1. This development is considered as a breakthrough in conservation efforts to save the Sumatran rhino from extinction
   2. The Sumatran Rhino is listed as Critically Endangered, and is mostly found in the island of Sumatra (Indonesia)
      
   3. The number of Sumatran rhinos have halved in the past fifteen years, with only about 200 surviving in the world today
      
   4. The eight year old rhino in a wildlife reserve in Sumatra is expected to give birth in May 2010. It will be the fourth Sumatran rhino calf to be born in captivity
   5. The two-horned Sumatran rhino is the smallest of the world’s five rhino species
      
   6. Rhino have been heavily poached for their horns that are believed to have medicinal properties, especially in East Asian medicine
   
   
   
2. Marine Census discovers 5000 new species
   
   1. A preview of the Census of Marine Life has revealed that the project has discovered more than 5000 new species
      
   2. Scientists presented these early findings in San Diego. The final report from the decade-long census will be released in Oct 2010
   3. The project has involved more than 2000 scientists from 80 countries
   4. The new species found include bizarre and colourful creatures as well as organisms that produce therapeutic chemicals
   5. Findings include the Kiwa hirsuta family of crabs, so named because of their extremely furry appearance, discovered near Easter Island
      
   6. A new species of sponge that produce an anti-cancer chemical have been found in the Florida Keys
      
   7. The census is expected to help develop policies that will better protect marine species and habitats
   
   
   
3. Microsoft-Yahoo search deal approved
   
   
   
   1. Microsoft’s plans to buy Yahoo’s internet search and search advertising businesses have been cleared by both European and American regulators
      
   2. Both the European Commission (EC) and the US Dept. of Justice have ruled that the deal will enhance competition and be beneficial to consumers
   3. Major business deals such as this require approval from the Dept. of Justice and the EC in order to be valid in the US and Europe respectively
      
   4. Under the deal, Yahoo will use Microsoft’s Bing search engine, while Yahoo will provide the main advertising sales team for Bing
   5. Yahoo is the internet’s second largest search engine in terms of usage, while Bing is the third. Google, with about 65% market share, is the first. This deal will establish Bing as the second in the market
   
   
   
4. New tiger reserve declared
   
   
   
   1. The Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala has been declared as India’s 38^th Tiger Reserve
      
   2. The Parambikulam Tiger Reserve in the Sungam Hills between the Anaimalai Hills and Nelliampathy Hills in the Western Ghats in Kerala
      
   3. It is estimated that there are 15 tigers in the Parambikulam reserve. Parambikulam is also home to numerous reptiles, birds and other species
   4. It is estimated that there are about 1100-1200 tigers in India
   5. The Parambikulam Tiger Reserve is the second Tiger Reserve in Kerala, the other one being the Periyar Tiger Reserve
5. New farming system heralded
   
   1. A new system of farming based on using fertiliser trees to increase crop yield is being heralded by scientists from around the world
   2. The system uses the Acacia tree to increase nitrogen content in soils which leads to increase in crop yields of as much as 150%
      
   3. The Acacia tree stores the same amount of nitrogen in its leaves as about three bags of commercial fertiliser. When the leaves die and fall to the ground, the nitrogen is released into the soil
   4. The system, used traditionally in Africa, is expected to greatly benefit paddy yields in India, decrease fertiliser use and help address climate change
   5. Other benefits of using the Acadia trees for fertilisers include timber and fuel for farmers, longer growing seasons and higher resistance to drought
   
   
6. Chennai Declaration on Biodiversity adopted
   
   
   
   1. The Chennai Declaration on Biodiversity has been adopted, calling on nations to prioritise conservation of the earth’s multitude of plant, agricultural, forest and marine species
      
   2. The Declaration was adopted by representatives of organisations like the UN Environment Programme, UN Food and Agricultural Organisation (UNFAO), the International Rice Research Institute, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the World Food Prize Fund, and India’s National biodiversity Authority and the Ministry of Environment and Forests
   3. The Declaration was adopted on 17 Feb 2010 after days of negotiation at the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai
      
   4. Among the strategies set out by the Declaration are
      1. According economic value to services rendered by nature and agriculture
      2. Finding markets for neglected but nutritious crops
      3. Including rural communities in biodiversity strategies
      4. Promoting biodiversity literacy through public education
      5. Refocusing research and development priorities
   5. 2010 is the International Year of Biodiveristy

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General Studies - GEOGRAPHY - DESERTS

Overview

• A desert is a region that receives almost no rainfall. In general deserts are areas with a moisture deficit i.e. lose more moisture than receive
• Deserts are defined as areas with average precipitation less than 250 mm per year or where more water is lost by evaporation and transpiration than falls by precipitation
  
• Deserts are located where vegetation is sparse or nonexistent
  
• Deserts constitute about one third (33%) of the Earth’s land surface
  
• The largest desert on Earth is Antarctica
  

Classification of deserts

The world's largest deserts (excluding polar deserts)

• Hot deserts
  
  • This is the most common form of desert
    
  • They have large diurnal (daily) and seasonal temperature variation, with daytime temperatures reaching more than 45 C in the summer and dipping to 0 C at night in the winter
    
  • Water acts to trap IR radiation from both the sun and the ground, and dry desert air is incapable of blocking sunlight during the day or trapping heat at night
    
  • The largest hot desert is the Sahara Desert
    
• Cold deserts
  
  • Cold deserts (aka polar deserts) are deserts which occur in extremely cold regions. In cold deserts, the mean temperature during the warmest month is less than 10 C
    
  • Cold deserts form due to extreme lack of precipitation (in the form)
    
  • Cold deserts are covered in snow and ice. Due to lack of liquid water, cold deserts cannot support life
    
  • Instead of sand dunes, polar deserts have snow dunes (in areas where precipitation is locally available)
  • The largest cold desert is the continent of Antarctica
    
• Montane deserts
  
  • Montane deserts are deserts that occur at very high altitudes
    
  • Example: Ladakh, Tibet
    
  • These places are profoundly arid (low humidity) due to their large distance from the nearest available source of moisture
    
• Rain shadow deserts
  
  • Rain shadow deserts form when tall mountain ranges block clouds from reaching areas in the direction of the wind
    
  • As air moves over the mountains, air cools and moisture condenses, causing precipitation on the windward side of the mountain. When the air reaches the leeward side, it is dry since it has already lost all its moisture, resulting in a desert
    
  • Example: Tirunelveli area in southern Tamil Nadu
    

Flora and Fauna in deserts

The snow surface at Dome C in Antarctica is representative of most of the continent's surface

• Although deserts are generally thought to support little life, in reality deserts do have high biodiversity
• Animals in the desert include kangaroo rat, coyote, jackal, jack rabbit and lizards
• Most desert animals remain hidden during the daytime to control body temperature and limit moisture needs
  
• Animals that have adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles. A particularly well-studied adaptation is the specialisation of mammalian kidneys shown by desert-inhabiting species
• Deserts typically have plant cover that is sparse but diverse
• Most desert plants are salt and drought tolerant, such as xerophytes
• Some desert plants store water in their leaves, stems and roots. Others have long taproots that penetrate deep into the ground to reach the water table, or have roots that spread over a wider area in order absorb moisture from the ground
• Another desert adaptation is the development of long spiny needle-like leaves that lose less moisture to transpiration
  
• The giant Saguaro cacti, which grow to about 15 m height, are commonly found in the Sonora desert in Arizona (USA). The Saguaro cacti grow slowly but live up to 200 years, provide nests for desert birds and serve as desert trees
  

Water in deserts

• Rain does fall occasionally on deserts, and when they do, desert storms are often violent
• Large storms in the Sahara deliver up to 1mm of rain per minute
• Normally dry streams, called arroyos or wadis, can quickly fill up following rain and cause dangerous flash floods
  
• A few deserts are also crossed by ‘exotic’ rivers – rivers that originate elsewhere but run through desert areas. These rivers lose enormous quantities of water to evaporation while journeying through the desert, but have sufficient volume to ensure continuous flow. Examples: Nile, Colorado and Yellow rivers
• Desert lakes can form where rainwater or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are usually salty, shallow and temporary.
  
• Since they are shallow, wind stress can make the lake waters move over several sq km.
  
• When desert lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or hardpan. This flat area of clay, silt and sand encrusted by sand is called a playa or sink. The flat terrains of playas and hardpans makes them excellent speedways and natural runways for aircraft
• Examples of desert lakes: Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA)
  
• The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest place on Earth. Blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes and the Chilean coastal range, the Atacama is virtually sterile and devoid of all life. The average rainfall in the region is 1 mm per year. Some weather stations in the desert have never received rain.
  

Mineral resources in deserts

The Saguaro Cactus tree in the Sonoran Desert (USA) can grow up to 15 m and live up to 200 years

• Deserts may contain a great amount of mineral resources over their entire surface
• The red colour of many sand deserts is due to the occurrence of laterite. Laterite, rich in iron and aluminium, is commonly used in making bricks
• Evaporation enriches mineral accumulation in desert lakes, including gypsum, sodium salts and borates
• The Great Basin Desert (USA) has been extensively used to mine borates, which are used in the manufacture of glass
• The Atacama Desert (Chile) is abundant in saline minerals. Sodium nitrate for fertilisers and explosives has been mined from the Atacama since the middle of the 19^th century
• Significant petroleum deposits are found in desert regions. However, these oil fields were originally formed when the areas were shallow marine environments. Subsequent climate change has rendered these regions arid
• Deserts are also increasingly seen as sources of solar energy. It is estimated that all the world’s electricity needs could be met by 10% of the solar energy tapped from the Sahara Desert

Oasis

• An oasis is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, usually surrounding a spring or similar water source
• Oases provide natural habitats for animals, plants and even humans
• Oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers, where water reaches the surface by natural pressure

List of important deserts

S. No.	Desert	Location	Notes
1	Antarctica	Antarctica	Largest desert on earth
2	Arctic	Arctic	Second largest desert
3	Sahara	Northern Africa (Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Morocoo, Algeria)	Largest hot desert Third largest desert
4	Arabian desert	Arabia (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Yemen)
5	Gobi desert	Mongolia, China
6	Kalahari desert	Southern Africa (Botswana, parts of Namibia, South Africa)	Supports plants and animals since much of it is not a true desert Receives about 75-200 mm of rainfall per year
7	Patagonian desert	Argentina	Cold weather desert
8	Great Victoria Desert	Australia

DESERTIFICATION

Overview

• Desertification is the extreme deterioration of land in arid and dry areas due to loss of vegetation and soil moisture
  
• Desertification results mainly from human activities but is influenced by climatic variations
• Desertification directly results in biodiversity loss and loss of productive capacity

Causes of desertification

• The primary reasons for desertification are
  
  • overgrazing
  • over-cultivation
  • increased fire frequency
  • water impoundment
  • deforestation
  • overdraft of ground water
  • increased soil salinity
  • climate change
• Droughts by themselves do not cause desertification. However, continued land abuse during droughts increases land degradation leading to desertification.
• Nomadic lifestyles with slash and burn agriculture can directly lead to desertification

Historical and current desertification

The Atacama Desert (Chile), the driest place on Earth, is almost completely sterile and devoid of all life. The only such place on Earth, it has often been compared to planet Mars.

• Desertification is a historic phenomenon: the world’s largest deserts were formed by natural processes over long intervals of time.
  
• Dated fossil pollen indicate that the Sahara has been changing between desert and fertile savanna. The Sahara is currently expanding southward at a rate of 48 km per year
  
• Drought and overgrazing in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the US into the Dust Bowl
• Slash and burn agriculture in Madagascar has caused almost 10% of the country to become barren, sterile land

Countering desertification

• Counter-desertification techniques usually focus on two major aspects
  • Provisioning of water
    
  • Fixating and hyper-fertilising soils
    
• Fixating of soils is done by means of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Made from trees and bushes, these reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration
• Soil fertilisation and enrichment is often achieved using leguminous plants (which extract nitrogen from air and fix into soil). Grains, barley, beans and dates are used for this purpose
• Stacking stones around the base of trees and artificial groove digging can also help plant survival by collecting morning dew and retaining soil moisture
• Desertification can also be temporarily forestalled by using sand fences (using bushes and trees), which decrease wind velocity and hence soil erosion and moisture loss
• The Green Wall project in Africa aims to plant trees in a 15 km strip from Senegal in the west to Djibouti in the east. The project aims to counter desert progression while also providing economic opportunities to the local populations
  

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

• The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought
  
• The Convention was adopted in Paris in 1994 and came into effect in 1996. The UNCCD has 193 member nations including India
• The Convention seeks to achieve its goals through national-level action programmes that incorporate long term strategies supported by international cooperation
• It is the first and only legally binding framework to address the problem of desertification
• The nodal agency for implementing the UNCCD in India is the Ministry of Environment and Forests

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General Studies - DELHI SULTANATE

DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

• The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13^th to the 16^th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi
• The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were
  
  • Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)
  • Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
  • Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)
  • Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
  • Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
• The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE
  

Mamluk Dynasty

• Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE
• The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people
• It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE
• Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include
  • Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)
  • Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)
  • Razia Sultana (1236-1240)
  • Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)
• The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  
• Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi
• The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE
• Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world
  

Khilji Dynasty

• The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE
• They were Turko-Afghan people
• The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
• Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language
• Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE, which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale

Tughlaq Dynasty

• The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE
• They were of Turkic origin
• The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE
• The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)
  
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire
• He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region
  
• In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned
  
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning

Sayyid Dynasty

• The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE
• The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE

Lodi Dynasty

• The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526
• They were of Afghan origin
• The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE
• Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior
• The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established
  

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

• Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13^th century
  
• However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction
  
• The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated
• Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged
  
  
  
  
  

DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

• The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau
• They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686
• The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527
• The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were
  • Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)
    
  • Bijapur (1490-1686)
    
  • Berar (1490-1572)
    
  • Golkonda (1518-1687)
    
  • Bidar (1528-1619)
    
• The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565
  
• An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu
• The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate
• The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty
  
• The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar
• The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c. 1565)
  
• This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati
• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636

Berar Sultanate

• The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490
• It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572

Bidar Sultanate

• The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490
• Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates
• Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619
• An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper
  

Bijapur Sultanate

• The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty
  
• The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur
• Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India
• The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas
• The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686

Golconda Sultanate

• The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty
  
• The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh
• The capital city was Hyderabad
• The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)
  
• Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda
• The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu
  
• Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687
  

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General Studies - CIVIL AVIATION IN INDIA

Overview

• India is the 9^th largest civil aviation market in the world
• The Indian civil aviation sector handles about 414,000 passengers every month. Annual passenger traffic growth is about 20%
• Civil aviation in India falls under the purview of the Ministry of Civil Aviation
• Civil aviation is regulated under the Aircraft Act 1934 and Aircraft Rules 1937
• The oldest airport in the country is the Nagpur airport
• The oldest airline in India was Tata Airlines, founded in 1932. It was re-named as Air India in 1946
• The first airline service in India was by Tata Airlines in 1932, flying mail from Karachi to Bombay
• The first international air service was by Air India in 1948, between Bombay and London

All governmental bodies listed below function under the Ministry of Civil Aviation




Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

• Headquarters New Delhi
• The DGCA is the governmental body that regulates civil aviation in India

• The DGCA is the nodal agency for implementing the 1944 Chicago Convention on civil aviation. The Chicago Convention established the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), an agency of UN in charge of regulating international air travel

• Its functions include
  • Registration of civil aircraft
  • Licensing of pilots and air traffic controllers
  • Formulation of standards of air worthiness for civil aircraft
  • Certification of aerodromes
  • Conducting investigations into accidents/incidents involving civil aviation
  • Coordination of ICAO matters
  • Supervision of flying schools
  • Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions
  • Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft

Bureau of Civil Aviation Safety (BCAS)

• Established 1978, headquarters New Delhi
• The BCAS was formed to coordinate, monitor, inspect and train personnel in civil aviation security matters
• The primary function of the BCAS is to establish the standards and measures with respect to civil aviation security at domestic and international airports in the country

Commission on Railway Safety (CRS)

• The erstwhile Railway Inspectorate (formed in 1883) was re-named the Commission on Railway Safety in 1961
• Headquarters Lucknow
• The functions of the CRS include
  • Inspect new railways and determine their fitness for public carriage of passengers
  • Make periodical and other inspections of railway and rolling stock
  • Investigate accidents/incidents related to the Railways
• The Commission on Railway Safety functions under the Ministry of Civil Aviation because of the desire to have a railways inspection authority independent of the Railway Board

National Aviation Company of India Ltd (NACIL)

• Established 2007. Headquarters Delhi/Mumbai
• The NACIL was formed as a holding company for the merger of Air India and Indian Airlines
• It is currently the largest airline operator in India

Airports Authority of India (AAI)

• Formed in 1995, headquarters New Delhi
• The AAI was formed by merging the International Airports Authority of India and the National Airports Authority
• The AAI operates and manages 126 airports in India. These include 12 international airports, 89 domestic airports and 26 civil enclaves
• The main functions of the AAI include
  • Control and management of Indian airspace
  • Development and operation of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves
  • Provision of communication, navigational and visual aids for flying (like Radar, ILS etc)

Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA)

• Established 1985, located Raebareli (Uttar Pradesh)
• The main objective of the IGRUA is to improve flight training standard in civil aviation and to provide flight training to selected candidates

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Tips for IAS Exams

1. Be very particular about the subject you choose for prelims, as you will be appearing for an objective type of paper. History, maths, geography may prove to be very scoring. Choose subjects which have availability of books, reading material and guidance. In recent years engineering subjects like civil and electrical can be chosen, giving BEs and IITians an edge (yes! even here they are giving the BAs and BScs a tough fight!)

2. G.K. will definitely pay in your prelims. Reading newspapers, watching TV news and of course quiz shows like KBC is a must.

3. If you have been lucky enough to reach the interview stage book knowledge may not be the only thing you need. Your mental alertness will count as they ask you questions like “How many steps did you walk up to reach here?” or “ What is the colour of the wall behind you ?” - So be prepared. 

4. Enhance your personality because it will definitely be one of the criteria for selection. For IPS physical wellbeing is of great importance, you should be medically fit.

5. Improve your communication skills. IFS aspirants must be proficient in at least one foreign language. So go ahead, have your say in this political mess of our country and try to make it a better place.

TIPS on IAS
From Mr. Vaid of Vaid's ICS Coaching Center

It was in 1981 when I had my first encounters with UPSC through the aspirants (for IAS etc.) who sought my help to prepare for certain specific topics in GS and my parent discipline, i.e. Anthropology. Today, 13 years later, through regular interaction with the UPSC experts and students all over India, particularly at Delhi, Lucknow, Patna, Chandigarh and Hyderabad, I find myself in a favourable position to pen down my experiences and suggestions to the young aspirants. In the early eighties, there were three (Delhi, Allahabad and Patna) major centre of UPSC related activities, while Hyderabad was coming up fast. There used to be 40 to 60 thousand contenders for the coveted posts. Today, while the number of aspirants has risen by over 200 percent, many new centres have come up in almost every state capital and many other major cities. In those days professionals did not see any merit in contention for these jobs, but recent years have witnessed a flood of such aspirants, at times sweeping the top positions in the merit list. In those days History, Sociology, Political Science etc. used to be the most popular optionals while today, many hitherto less known subjects have taken over. Besides, many states have changed their pattern of PCS examination in line with UPSC examination. This change in the scenario, resultant of a number of factors, demands that the serious contenders to the job must adopt a more rational, more systematic strategy and approach, right from the moment they think of preparing for the civil services examination.

On the first thought of appearing in the Civil Services Examination (C.S.E.), the first issue is the selection of optionals. In a way, selection of right optionals is the most crucial step. Post-graduates in any discipline, generally prefer taking up their parent subject for Prelims. Though such selection is quite logical, aspirants with any science discipline as their base subject must ponder over the issue more seriously. Maths, Physics, Geology etc., optionals for Prelims must be opted for, only if one is out and out thorough with the subject. As UPSC ensures that 'some' candidates from every discipline must qualify for the Mains, aspirants with a science subject must judge themselves correctly regarding their own capability to be included in these 'some'. Some of the social sciences (e.g. History, Sociology and Public Administration) opted by quite a significant majority can, however, be a much safer bet, particularly for those (ordinary science graduates) who do not have any specific parent subject or for those who are not able to develop confidence in their parental subject. In either case, the formal preparation must start from the basic fundamentals, even if a person is already a post-graduate in that subject.

General Studies (GS) has to be prepared on quite a different plane because the content of this paper is too spread out and because any issue, major or minor, can be asked objectively. Traditionally, 10 + 2 level books of NCERT or any state education board had been covering a major part of the content but, these days, the items in news during the last one year or so, are being asked quite frequently. Problems are generally faced in everyday science (by the candidates with social sciences background) or in mental ability or in the fundamentals of economics. The most important aspect for the preparation of GS Prelims, therefore, is to identify the loop-holes and plug them urgently.

Many of you prepare a subject in terms of "reading" (once, twice, thrice etc.) with or without underlining the important facts. It results not only in longer time of preparation, but also many important points may skip. Also, even if you underline the highlighting points, most of you have the tendency to read the text in full while going for the subsequent readings. It is, therefore, advisable that texts must be read once and all important points (likely to be forgotten) recorded separately so that you need not study voluminous texts again. This would save on your time and should result in greater efficiency. The Mains: For right approach, the preparation of Mains should start before or at least concurrent with Prelims. Just because you have to prepare for Essay, GS and the two optionals (English and a regional language, the one/two other compulsory, do not require a separate preparation) you never get enough time (to prepare for all these) after the declaration of Prelims' results. Further, while Prelims is only a screening test, it is on the basis of your performance in Mains, on which mainly depends the final outcome of your efforts. Strategically, therefore, the preparation for the examination should start about one year in advance and you should think about appearing in the Prelims only when you have had a strong grip over the Mains' subject matter.

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IAS Papers : Method of Making Notes

There are different methods of making notes and one should decide which method suits you the best. There are two types of making notes, one is the LINEAR NOTES and the other PATTERN NOTES.

Linear Notes

Let us start with Linear notes first, it is a method in which you condense the material you have read using headings and sub headings and jotting down the most important points. This method works best when making notes from a book where the material is already properly organized. But one disadvantage of this method is that you end up copying a lot of material from the book which defeats the very purpose of condensing.

The right way to use this method is to use loose sheets of paper instead of an exercise book since it is easier to keep adding information. It is a good idea to leave space on each sheet of paper for additional information. Another way to make your notes more interesting is to use colors, block letters, making boxes and highlighting as and when necessary. All this will immediately draw our attention to the actual contents of our notes and make it more clear and comprehensible.

 

Pattern Notes

We now come to Pattern Notes. For this we have to begin the topic at the centre of the page. Each line radiating from it represents a branch of the main idea. Each point is written as briefly as possible using a key word or a phrase. It is a better method to adopt because it is more flexible than making Linear notes. One can add extra information to it at any point without any problem. Second advantage is that we can see the whole pattern at one go without actually turning the pages. Thirdly we can indicate the links between different topics more easily than we can do in a linear method. Another advantage of pattern notes is that it is exceptionally useful when making notes from memory for revision as you keep jotting down points as and when they occur to you. This makes it easier to revise for exams and writing out essays as only brief key words are used. Lastly, it is easier to remember as notes is made in a shape format.

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POST-MAURYAN PERIOD (20BC - 300AD)

ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

In the post-Mauryan era (200 BC. To 300 A.D.) the economy moved at an accelerated tempo. Society witnessed structural reorientation as significant groups of foreigners penetrated into India and chose to be identified with the rest of the community.

The occupation of craftsmen was an important segement of the day's socio-economic milieu. The craftsment were not only associated with the towns but also villages like Karimnagar in the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh. The categories of craftsmen who were known in this period bear out the truth that there was considerable specialization in mining and metallurgy. A large number of iron artifacts have been discovered at various excavated sites relating to the Kushan and Satavahans Periods. It is surprising to notice that the Telengana region appears to have made special progress in iron artifacts - not only weapons but also balance rods, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladels have been found in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Also, cutlery made out of iron and steel was exported to the Abyssinian ports.

Equally significant was the progress made in cloth-making and silk-weaving. Dyeing was a craft of repute in some south Indian towns like Uraiyur, a shurb of Tiruchirapalli, and Arikamedu. The use of oil was also high because of the invention of oil wheel. The inscriptions of the day mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers and smiths as the donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns etc. Among the luxury items the important ones were ivory and glass articles and beed cutting. At the beginning of the coristian era the knowledge of glass-blowing reached India and attained its peak. Coin minting also reached a high level of excellence made out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin. A coint mould of the Satavahans period shows that through it half a dozen coins could be turned out a time.

In urban handicrafts the pride of place goes to the beautiful pieces of terracotta produced in profuse quantities. They have been found in most of the sites belonging to the Kushan and Satavahans periods. In particular, terracotta figures of great beauty have been found in the Nalgonda district of Telengana. The terracotta figures were mostly meant for the use of upper classes in towns.

This immense manufacturing activity was maintained by guilds. At least to dozen kinds of guilds were there. Most of the artisans known from inscriptions hailed from the Mathura region and the western Deccan which lay on the trade routes leading to the ports on the western coast.

The guilds, coming from the days of the Mauryan period, became a more important factor in the urban life both in being instrumental to increase in production and moulding public opinion. The primary guilds of the day were those of the potters, metal workers and carpenters. Some guilds organized their own distribution system while owning a large number of boats to transport goods from various ports on the Ganges.

The guilds of the day fixed their own rules of work and the standards of the finished products. They exercised care regarding price also to safeguard the interest of both the artisan and the customer. They controlled the price of the manufactured articles. He conduct of the guild members was regulated through a guild court. The customary uses of the guilds had the same force as those of laws. 

The extensive activity of the guilds can be known from their seals and emblems. The banners and insignia of each guild were carried in procession of festive occasions. These prosperous guilds in addition, donated large sums of money to religious institutions and charitable causes.

Since the activity of the guilds was so buoyant, it appears that they attracted the attention of kings too. It is said that kings had financial interests in guilds. Royalty invested its money in commercial activities. This naturally led to protection being provided by State to the guilds. Regarding the activities of guilds, it appears from inscriptions that they acted as bankers, financiers and trustees although these activities were carried out by a separate class of people known as sresthins. Usury was a part of banking and the general rate of interest was around 15% loans extended to sea-trade carried higher interest rate. An authority of the day states that the rate of interest should vary according to the caste of the man to whom money is lent.

Interestingly, apart from the guilds, there were workers bodies also. The workers co-operative included artisans and various crafts associated with a particular enterprise. The classic example of this activity was the co-operative of builders, which has its members drawn from specialized workers such as architects. Engineers, bricklayers etc.

The immense commercial activity was bolstered by the thriving trade between India and the Easter Roman Empire. With the movement of Central Asian people like Sakas, Parthians and Kushans, trade came to be carried across the sea. Among the ports, the important ones were Broach and Sopara on the western coast, and Arikamedu and Tamralipti on the eastern coast. Out of these ports Broach was the most important as not only goods were exported from here but a also goods were received. Across land, the converging point of trade routes was Taxila, which was connected with the Silk Route passing through Central Asia. Ujjain was the meeting point of good number of trade routes.
The trade between India and Rome mostly consisted of luxury goods. To begin with Rome got her imports from the southern most portions of the country. The Roman imports were Muslims, pearls, jewels and precious stones from Central and South India. Iron articles formed an important item of export to the Roman Empire. For certain articles India became the clearing house, as for example, silk from China because of impediments posed by the Parthian rule in Iran and the neighboring areas.

The Romans, in return, exported to India various types of potters found in excavations at places like Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu nevar Pondicherry and a few other places. Probably lead was important from Rome. It is also presumed that the Kushans had brisk trade with the Romans as they conquered Mesopotamia in 115 A.D. At a place close to Kabul, glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have come to light, apart from small bronze statues of Greko-Roman style, And the most significant Roman export to India was the gold and silver coins - nearly 85 finds of Roman coins have been found. There is nothing surprising in the lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st century A.D. that Roman was being drained of gold on account of trade with India.

Indian kingdoms sent embassies to Rome the best known being the one sent about 25 B.C. Which included strange collection of men and animals-tigers, snakes, tortoises a monk and an armless boy who could shoot arrows with his toes. This mission reached Rome during the days of Emperor Augustus in 21 B.C.

In the southern kingdoms maritime trade occupied the pride of place. The literature of the day refers to harbours, docks, light houses and custom offices. Large variety of ships were built, both for short distance as well as long distance voyages. According to pliny the largest Indian ship was 75 tons. Other sources mention higher figures.
In the self-same period there was a boom in trade with south-East Asia. This was first occasioned by the Roman demand for spices. Gradually this trade grew in dimensions.

The growing number of strangers in the port towns and trade centers led to their absorbing Indian habits as their numbers grew, social laws of the day became rigid as to be seen from the law code of Manu. Further as conversions to Hinduism was technically impossible the non-Indian groups gradually grew into separate sub-castes. After all the conversion of a single individual was a problem but the device of caste made such absorption easier. Moreover the foreigners found it easier to become Buddhists instead of Aryans. Faced one theoretical knowledge confined to brahmins and the other practical and technical knowledge which became the preserve of the professionals.
It was during this period Dharmashastras came to be written. These Shastras made the social structure to be rigid. Apart from these writings poetry and drama were also popular. The outstanding poem in Tamil was Shilappadigaram. Another poem in Tamil was Manimegalai. In Sanskrit, Asvaghosa and Bhasa were the two great dramatists. The manuscripts of Asvaghosa were found in a monastry in Turdan in Central Asia. Both of his plays deal with Buddhist themes. Bhasa appeared a couple of centuries later. His plays are based on the incident from the spics or historical romances around the exploits of king udayan in Avanti.

In the field of plastic art. Great were the achievement of this period like the stupas at Sanchi and Bar hut the caves at Allora and Ajanta. At Amravati the great age of painting began. Also the sculptures at Amravati show a mastery of stone sculpture and with the mathura school of sculpture the Indian tradition of sculpture began.

The booming trade and commerce of the period was at the base of the urban settlements that came into existence. The important towns of northern India were Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura and Indraprastha. Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period as revealed by excavations. The excavations at Sonkh in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the Kushan are but only one of the Gupta period. Again in Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Ropar also several sites show good Kushan structures. The Satayahans kingdown also witnessed thriving towns like Tagar, Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam.

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